Matter and Measurement
Physical vs Chemical Properties
Core Concepts In this tutorial on physical versus chemical properties, you will learn about the differences between physical, chemical, intensive and extensive properties. We will also cover physical versus chemical changes. Topics Covered in Other Articles Physical vs Chemical Properties
Dimensional Analysis
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn what dimensional analysis is in the field of chemistry, how to use it, see examples, and learn how it can be applied to chemistry. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is Dimensional
What is Matter?
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn about matter, its properties, an introduction about its history, the difference between matter and mass. Topics Covered in Other Articles Defining Matter In science there are many different definitions of matter. Usually
What is UV-Vis Spectrophotometry?
Core Concepts In this article, you will explore the components of UV-Vis spectrophotometry, its discovery, how it works, and some applications. What is UV-Vis spectrophotometry? UV-Vis spectrophotometry is an analytical technique that measures the wavelengths of light, from the ultraviolet
How to Find & Calculate Molar Mass
Core Concepts In this tutorial, we will explain “what is molar mass”. You will learn how to find and calculate the molar mass for elements and molecules. If you enjoy this article, be sure to check out our other tutorials
Moles and Avogadro’s Number
Core Concepts So what is a mole? In this tutorial, you will learn the definition of the mole, an important unit of measurement in chemistry. You will also learn about Avogadro’s number and why it is useful. From here, you
Atoms and Molecules
Why Water Works
Core Concepts In this article, we will discuss the chemical structure, chemical properties, and key applications of water, one of the world’s most important molecules. Introduction Water is an inorganic compound made up of oxygen and hydrogen that is critical
What is Atomic Mass?
Core Concepts In this article you will learn about the different things that contribute to atomic mass. What makes up an atom, and how to determine atomic masses. Topics covered in other articles Introduction to Atomic Mass Number Atoms of
What is Atomic Number?
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn about atomic number, its definition, its usefulness in categorizing elements, and its history as a theory in chemistry. Topics Covered in Other Articles The Elements What exactly makes one element different from
What is an ion?
Core Concepts In this tutorial, learn what an ion is, and why it is important in chemistry. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is an ion? An ion is an atom or molecule with either a positive or negative electrical
Rutherford Atomic Model
Learn about the Rutherford atomic model, the gold foil (scattering) experiment, and the limitations of Rutherford’s model!
Chemistry Prefixes
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will be introduced to the different types of chemistry prefixes. You will also learn the basics of these chemistry prefixes and how they are applicable in the real world today! Lastly, you will be
Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
What is a Chemical Reaction? Examples of Physical vs. Chemical Change
How is a Chemical Reaction Defined? What is a chemical reaction? What is a chemical change, and what is a physical change? A chemical reaction occurs when compounds or substances undergo a chemical change to form different compounds or substances.
Calculating Percent Yield
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn calculating percent yield and theoretical yield are, and how to calculate it. In addition, you will walk through an example calculation. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is Percent Yield? When performing
Combustion Reactions
Core Concepts In this tutorial you will learn what exactly a combustion reaction is and why it is important. You will also encounter numerous examples of combustion reactions and be able to replicate them on your own. Topics Covered in
Limiting Reactants and Limiting Reagents
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn what a limiting reagent is, how to find the limiting reactant, and see some example problems. What is a Limiting Reagent? The limiting reactant is the reagent (compound or element) to be
Solving Stoichiometry Problems
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn what is stoichiometry and the different types of problems involving it. You will go through several examples to practice and master the content! Topics Covered in Other Articles Stoichiometry Definition What is
Types of Chemical Reactions
Types of Chemical Reactions: Core Concepts This article will cover the main classifications of chemical reactions: synthesis reaction, decomposition reaction, single replacement reaction (single displacement reaction), and double replacement reaction (double displacement reaction). We also discuss what is a combustion
Solutions and Solubility
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures
In this article, we will discuss the definition of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures, and then look at some examples of each! It is very important to understand the differences, since they can influence many aspects of materials and processes. Heterogeneity
How to Calculate Molarity & Molarity Formula
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn the molarity formula, and how to calculate the molarity of a solution using the molarity equation. If you enjoy this article, make sure to check out other resources linked below! Topics Covered
What is a Solution in Chemistry?
A solution is much more than an answer to a complicated math problem. It is also a chemistry term! Learn what solutions are, how to identify them, and examples of common solutions! What are Solutions? A solution is what occurs
Common Ion Effect
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will be introduced to the common ion effect. You will learn what it is, how it works and about its overall effect on solubility and precipitates in both chemical reactions and the real world.
What is a Solute? Solvent vs. Solute with Examples
Solute and solvent are words that often go together in chemistry. When they are mixed, they make a solution. Learn about how to identify the solute and the solvent, properties of each, and real-world examples of solvents and solutes. If
Aqueous Solutions
Core Concepts Aqueous solutions are one of the most important types of mixture inside and outside the lab. Check out this article to learn more about the characteristics and properties of aqueous solutions! Topics Covered in Other Articles What are
Electronic Structure of Atoms
What is Electron Affinity?
Learn amazing facts about electron affinity, including definition, periodic table trends, and influencial factors
How to Write Electron Configurations
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn how to find and write the electron configurations and orbital diagrams for various elements using the periodic table. You will learn Aufbau’s principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. Related Articles
Orbital Shapes & Quantum Numbers
Core Concepts In this tutorial on quantum numbers, you will learn how we can describe the properties of an electron in an associated atom. These various properties include energy level, shape, orientation, and spin. You will also learn about orbital
What are Valence Electrons?
Core Concepts In this tutorial, we learn about valence electrons, what they are, and why they are significant. We will also learn how to tell how many valence electrons an element has. Topics Covered in Other Articles What are valence
Pauli Exclusion Principle
Pauli Exclusion Principle Definition The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that in any atom no electron can have the same four electronic quantum numbers as another electron. Every electron must have different quantum numbers. So, in each electronic orbital (same n,
Aufbau Principle
What is the Aufbau Principle? The Aufbau principle states that electrons will first fill the lowest energy electron shells in a neutral atom. Electrons fill orbitals from lowest energy orbitals to highest energy orbitals. The Aufbau principle helps to determine
Periodicity and the Periodic Table
Ionization Energy
What is Ionization Energy? Ionization energy, also called ionization potential, is a property that all elements on the periodic table have. So what is the definition of ionization energy? It is the amount of energy required to remove an electron
Periodic Trends Made Easy!
What are Periodic Trends? Periodic trends are observable patterns in the properties of an element that are dependent on its position in the Periodic Table. These trends have allowed scientists in the past to predict certain characteristics of unknown elements.
Atomic Radius Trend
What is the Atomic Radius? Let’s discuss the definition of the atomic radius, also called atomic size, and the atomic radius trend on the periodic table. The atomic radius is measured as half the distance between two nuclei of the
Periodic Table With Charges
Introduction: The layout of the periodic table and where an element is located, can tell you a lot about its properties! In this article, you’ll learn how you can figure out what an element’s charge is by looking at where
What is Electronegativity? Trends & Chart
What is electronegativity? Electronegativity is defined as an atom’s ability to attract electrons towards it in a chemical bond. There are several different ways of measuring it, the most common being the Pauling scale. Different elements have different electronegativities based
Ionic Radius Trends
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will be introduced to ionic radius trends on the periodic table of elements. You will also be introduced to the concepts that contribute to ionic radius, including how to find it. Topics Covered in
Chemical Bonding
Ionic vs Covalent Bonds
In this article, we discuss ionic bonding and covalent bonding, and compare ionic bonds vs covalent bonds. We’ll talk about what is an ionic bond, and what is a covalent bond. We’ll also give examples of both. Common table salt
Orbital Diagrams
What are Orbital Diagrams? Electron orbital diagrams are diagrams used to show the energy of electrons within the sublevels of an atom or atoms when used in bonding. Single atom diagrams (atomic orbital diagrams) consist of horizontal lines or boxes
What is a Polar Covalent Bond?
Core Concepts In this tutorial, we will be discussing what makes a bond polar, how a polar covalent bond is defined, examples of polar covalent bonds, and finally, steps to solve a polarity question. Topics Covered in Other Articles What
Bond Enthalpy & Bond Energy
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn about bond energy, bond enthalpy, and its relationship to bond order and enthalpy. You will also learn about the formation and breakdown of a bond, along with exothermic and endothermic reactions. Topics
What is a Chemical Bond?
In this article, we look at the types of bonds in chemistry. We explain what is a chemical bond, list the types of chemical bonds, and give chemical bond examples. Bonds are very important in chemistry, as they dictate many
Bond Formation and Dissociation Energies
What is Bond Energy? No molecule within chemistry would exist without bonds linking atoms. Because forming bonds releases energy, molecules exist because atoms prefer a stable compound with less energy. In order to break these stable bonds, energy must be
Molecular Structure
Why Water Works
Core Concepts In this article, we will discuss the chemical structure, chemical properties, and key applications of water, one of the world’s most important molecules. Introduction Water is an inorganic compound made up of oxygen and hydrogen that is critical
Geometric Isomerism
In this tutorial, you will learn about isomers, geometric isomerism in alkenes and cycloalkanes, and cis-trans versus E-Z notation.
Molecular Geometry and Bond Angles
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn how to identify the molecular geometry and bond angles of a molecule. You will learn about the more common molecular geometries: tetrahedral, linear, bent, trigonal pyramidal, and trigonal planar – along with
Resonance Structures
Core Concepts In this tutorial on resonance structures, you will learn what resonance structures are and how to find all of the possible resonance structures a molecule has. You will also learn how to identify and compare the stability among
Bond Order vs. Bond Length
Core Concepts – Bond Length In this tutorial, you will learn about the definition of a chemical bond, and the key differences between bond order and bond length. You will also learn about how these characteristics relate to each other,
Lewis Dot Structures
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn how to draw the correct lewis dot structures for elements and compounds. In addition, you will learn about valence electrons and the octet rule. Topics Covered in other Articles Polyatomic Ions Electrons
Acids and Bases
What is Ka, the Acid Dissociation Constant?
Core Concepts In this tutorial you will learn about the acid dissociation constant (), and its applications to other topics in chemistry. You will learn how to relate and as well as the relationship between and . Topics Covered in
Buffer Capacity & Calculations
Read this tutorial to learn what buffer capacity is, and how to calculate it!
Properties of Acids and Bases
Core Concepts What is an acid? In this tutorial, you will learn about the distinctive properties between acids and bases, what defines an acid vs base, and also what is an amphoteric compound. If you enjoy this article be sure
What is a Buffer Solution?
Core Concepts This chemistry tutorial introduces you to buffers by learning the definition of a buffer, and the components of acidic and basic buffer solutions and how they react with added acids and bases. In addition, you will learn examples
Acid and Base Indicators
Core Concepts about Indicators Acid and Base indicators are molecules which change color in different pH environments. They are incredibly useful for quickly identifying the pH of a solution. In this article, the basics of Indicators in the context of
Acid Naming Rules
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn the basic definitions of what makes up an acid, as well as the acid naming rules. You will also learn about how strong and weak acids disassociate in water. Topics Covered in
Redox Reactions
Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis
Core Concepts In this tutorial, we will learn about a second type of electrochemical cell: electrolytic cells. We will also learn broadly about the concept of electrolysis, how it applies to electrolytic cells and chemistry, and its real-world applications. You
How to Balance Redox Reactions
Core Concepts Redox reactions are incredibly interesting and important reactions in chemistry, particularly in electrochemistry! However, they are not of much use unless properly balanced. In this tutorial, you will learn how to balance redox reactions, and what it means
What is Electrochemistry?
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you’ll learn the basics of electrochemistry, including oxidation, reduction, galvanic cells, and applications of electrochemistry. We’ll also go over the fundamental electrochemistry equations and how to use them. Electrochemistry is the field that studies the
Standard Reduction Potentials made easy
Standard reduction potentials are very useful in chemistry. They are also known as standard cell potentials, or standard electrode potentials. They are measured in volts, and they tell you how likely an element or ion is to be reduced by
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Core Concepts In this article, you will explore the lithium-ion battery, its compartments, and redox reactions that occur within it. You will also gain an overview of its work functions, applications, and advantages and disadvantages. Introduction A lithium-ion battery (LIB)
Redox Reactions & Oxidation Reduction
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn what a redox reaction is, the different parts of such a reaction, as well as how to recognize and write redox reactions. You will also learn the difference between oxidation and reduction,
Gases
What is Partial Pressure?
Core Concepts In this article, we learn about partial pressure and its importance with respect to Dalton’s Law, the Ideal Gas Law, mole fractions, and L’Chatelier’s Principle. Topics Covered in Other Articles Pressure and Partial Pressure Physical chemists tend to
Collision Theory
Core Concepts In this tutorial on collision theory, you will learn about what makes a collision successful. You will also learn about the ways to increase collisions and reaction rates, as well as the importance of collision theory. Topics Covered
Gay-Lussac’s Law
What is Gay-Lussac’s Law? Gay-Lussac’s law is a gas law that states the pressure of a gas varies directly with temperature when mass and volume are kept constant. As the temperature increases, the pressure will also increase. The concept is
Combined Gas Law
Core Concepts The combined gas law defines the relationship between pressure, temperature, and volume. It is derived from three other names gas laws, including Charles’ law, Boyle’s law, and Gay-Lussac’s law. Below we explain the equation for the law, how
What is Gas Pressure? A Gaseous Definition
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn the definition of pressure, and how to apply this definition to a sample of gas. From this, you will learn how gases exert pressure on a container, and what possible applications this
Understanding Kinetic Molecular Theory
Core Concepts You will learn the kinetic molecular theory of gases, and how to use the root-mean-square formula to determine the average speed of gas. Covered in Other Articles What is the Kinetic Molecular Theory? Kinetic molecular theory is a
Liquids and Solids
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
Core Concepts: In this tutorial, you will learn what the Clausius-Clapeyron equation is and how to apply it to problems. At the end, there are several problems with step-by-step solutions. What is the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation? The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the
What is Thermochemistry?
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn about the central concepts in thermochemistry, and how thermochemical laws guide the study of heat’s interactions with the world. You will also learn some crucial formulas and how to solve thermochemistry problems.
What is Gibbs Free Energy?
Core Concepts Gibbs free energy is an important value in thermodynamics that allows you to predict aspects of a chemical reaction. In this tutorial, we will learn why the Gibbs free energy equation is important and how to solve problems
Entropy
Core Concepts In this article, we discuss the meaning of entropy and its importance in thermodynamics, both in the universe and within a system. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is entropy? Entropy is a measure of all the possible
Thermochemistry Vocabulary
Core Concepts – Thermochemistry Vocabulary In this article you’ll learn the definitions and gain a better understanding of the main vocabulary terms for thermochemistry such as the different kinds of systems and what it means to have surroundings. The terms
State Variables vs. Path Variables
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn how to distinguish between state variables and path variables/functions, describe each type, and convert between them. Topics Covered in Other Articles Thermodynamic Variables: State Variables vs. Path Variables In chemistry, we use
Equilibrium
Solubility Product Constant (KSP)
What is Ksp? , or the solubility product constant, is a unitless measure of how well a solid dissolves in an aqueous solution. To be precise, is an equilibrium constant, which tells how much a solid dissociates when the dissolution
Equilibrium Conditions
Core Concepts In this article, you’ll learn the conditions for a chemical system at equilibrium, equilibrium constant concentrations, and their applications in kinetics. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is Chemical Equilibrium? Chemical equilibrium refers to a condition where the
What is Le Chatelier’s Principle?
Core Concepts Le Chatelier’s principle is one of the most important concepts with regard to chemical equilibrium. It allows us to predict the behavior of a system in equilibrium under various conditions. In this tutorial, we will cover the definition
What is the Equilibrium Constant?
Core Concepts In this article about chemical equilibrium, we will learn about the equilibrium constant, also often referred to as the equilibrium coefficient. This article explains what the equilibrium constant is, why it is significant, and how to calculate it.
Using an ICE Table
Core Concepts In this tutorial, we will learn about the ICE table for chemistry: a method of completing calculations in equilibrium reactions, either to find the concentrations of reactants and products, or to find the value of the equilibrium constant.
Reaction Kinetics
Catalysts & Activation Energy
What is a catalyst? Let’s talk about what catalysts are. A catalyst is a compound or element that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, e.g. the speed at which it occurs, without itself being part of the reaction. Generally
Integrated Rate Laws
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn about integrated rate laws, including their chemical meaning, mathematical derivation, and usefulness in studying chemical kinetics. Topics Covered in Other Articles Rate Laws and Integrated Rate Laws Chemical reactions can happen at
Rate-Determining Step
What is a rate-determining step? The rate-determining step in a reaction is the step which will take the longest time in a reaction. It is the slowest part of the reaction mechanism and will determine how fast the overall reaction
Arrhenius Equation
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn what the Arrhenius equation is, how to use the equation to determine the activation energy or rate constant of a reaction, and how to derive it. Using the Arrhenius Equation is an
Reaction Rates & How to Determine Rate Law
Core Concepts Some reactions will go fast, and some will go slow – the speed of the reaction is its reaction rate, which is dictated by a rate law. In this article, we will learn about reaction rates, rate laws,
Nuclear Chemistry
Fundamental Particles and Particle Physics
Core Concepts In this article, you will learn what fundamental particles are, how they were discovered, and where the next frontiers of this field of science are. The Fundamentals of the Fundamentals What makes a particle fundamental or elementary? Fundamental
How to Find Number of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn how to find and calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom or element. In addition, you will learn about the different subatomic particles. If you enjoy this tutorial,
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Particles
Core Concepts In this article, you will explore the properties of radioactive alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays, as well as how to stop them. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is radiation? Nuclear scientists use the term radiation
Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
Core Concepts In this article, you will explore the phenomenon of radioactive decay and its most common types: alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Topics Covered in Other Articles What is radioactive decay? Radioactive decay refers to a group of reactions
Isotope Abundance and Average Atomic Mass
Core Concepts When looking at the periodic table, each element has a value displayed for the atomic mass. If you look closely, it is clear that these values are almost never whole numbers. This is due to isotope abundance. In
What is an Isotope?
What is an isotope? An isotope is an atom that has the same number of protons and a different number of neutrons. The atom is still considered the same element (still contains the same number of protons) as before but
More...
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Core Concepts In this article, you will explore the lithium-ion battery, its compartments, and redox reactions that occur within it. You will also gain an overview of its work functions, applications, and advantages and disadvantages. Introduction A lithium-ion battery (LIB)
Solubility Product Constant (KSP)
What is Ksp? , or the solubility product constant, is a unitless measure of how well a solid dissolves in an aqueous solution. To be precise, is an equilibrium constant, which tells how much a solid dissociates when the dissolution
How to Write Net Ionic Equations
Core Concepts In this tutorial, you will learn how to write net ionic equations. In addition, you will learn how they are useful for understanding which ions in the solution are active in a reaction and which are spectator ions.
What is an Element?
Chemical elements. Atomic elements. Simple substances. Elements of the periodic table. These are all different terms for the same concept. A long time ago, “elements” used to mean earth, air, wind and fire – but that is no longer true.
Properties of Acids and Bases
Core Concepts What is an acid? In this tutorial, you will learn about the distinctive properties between acids and bases, what defines an acid vs base, and also what is an amphoteric compound. If you enjoy this article be sure
How to Balance Redox Reactions
Core Concepts Redox reactions are incredibly interesting and important reactions in chemistry, particularly in electrochemistry! However, they are not of much use unless properly balanced. In this tutorial, you will learn how to balance redox reactions, and what it means