Core Concepts
In this article, you will learn about the Process of Protein Synthesis, including its significance and applications. After reading this article, you will be able to understand the nature of Protein Synthesis, how it works, and its functions.
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What is Protein Synthesis?
Protein synthesis is a key biological process that drives all living creatures’ growth, development, and function. This technique enables the transcription of the genetic information encoded in DNA into RNA and its subsequent translation into functional proteins. This article delves into the process of protein synthesis in depth, highlighting major processes, molecular actors, and the importance of this complicated cellular machinery.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Protein Synthesis
Protein production methods differ between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Protein synthesis happens in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes, including bacteria, with simultaneous transcription and translation. The DNA is directly transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into protein by ribosomes. Protein synthesis in eukaryotes (plants, animals, and fungi) is more complicated. In the nucleus, the process of transcription converts DNA into pre-mRNA. Before export to the cytoplasm, the pre-mRNA undergoes alterations that involve removing introns and inserting a protective guanine cap and poly-A tail. Ribosomes in the cytoplasm translate mature mRNA to create proteins. In eukaryotes, the nuclear membrane separates transcription and translation, allowing for more control and complexity in gene expression. These discrepancies emphasize the cellular variety found in different creatures.
Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
| Prokaryotic protein synthesis | Eukaryotic protein synthesis |
| Translation occurs even before the transcription of mRNA ends | Transcription occurs followed by translation |
| Except in archaebacterial, bacterial mRNA formation does not include the addition of a cap and a poly A tail | mRNA formation includes the addition of a 5′ cap and a poly A tail at the 3′ ends of the mRNA transcript |
| Translation begins at the AUG codon | Translation begins via the 5′ cap, binding the mRNA to the ribosomal unit at the first AUG codon |
| Each mRNA is polycistronic and may carry several genes that are translated to give several proteins | Each mRNA is monocistronic and carries only a single gene, which is translated into a single protein |
Genetic Code
What is Genetic Code?
The genetic code is a set of rules that determines how the information stored in our DNA is translated into the language of proteins. It consists of specific sequences of three nucleotides called codons, with each codon representing a particular amino acid. These codons act as the “words” of the genetic code, guiding the assembly of amino acids in a specific order to create proteins, which are the building blocks of cells and perform essential functions in our bodies. The genetic code is universal, meaning that it is shared across nearly all living organisms, highlighting the fundamental unity of life.
What are mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA?
mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are three types of RNA molecules that play crucial roles in the process of protein synthesis within cells.
mRNA, also known as messenger RNA, is a single-stranded RNA molecule that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. It acts as an intermediary between the DNA and the synthesis of proteins. During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase transcribes a specific segment of DNA, forming a complementary mRNA molecule. The mRNA carries the genetic code in the form of codons, which are three-nucleotide sequences that specify the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis.
tRNA, or transfer RNA, is a small RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis. It functions as an adapter or “molecular interpreter” between the mRNA codons and the amino acids they code for. Each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid at one end and has an anticodon at the other end. The anticodon is a three-nucleotide sequence that pairs with the complementary codon on the mRNA. By recognizing the codons on the mRNA and carrying the corresponding amino acids, tRNA ensures that the correct amino acids are added to the growing protein chain during translation.
rRNA, or ribosomal RNA, is a major component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures where protein synthesis takes place. Ribosomes are composed of large and small subunits, both of which contain rRNA molecules. These rRNA molecules provide the structural framework for the ribosome and facilitate the binding of mRNA and tRNA during translation. Additionally, rRNA catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids, contributing to the synthesis of the protein chain.
Protein Biosynthesis Steps
Major steps of protein biosynthesis:
- Transcription
- Translation
- Post-Translation
Transcription – The First Step
Protein synthesis starts with transcription, which takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells or the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. The DNA double helix is unraveled during transcription. An enzyme called RNA polymerase reads and replicates a specific section of the DNA sequence known as a gene into a corresponding molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). The matching of RNA nucleotides (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil) with their corresponding bases on the DNA template strand (thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA) occurs during this process. The resultant mRNA molecule contains the genetic information for the construction of a specific protein.
mRNA Processing – Preparing for Translation
Before leaving the nucleus, the newly formed mRNA molecule undergoes a series of modifications known as mRNA processing. These modifications include the addition of a protective cap (cap structure) at the 5′ end and a tail of adenine nucleotides (poly-A tail) at the 3′ end. These modifications stabilize the mRNA and help in its export from the nucleus. The non-coding sections are called introns. The mRNA molecule removes the introns through a process called splicing. This leaves only the coding sequences called exons. The processed mRNA is now ready for translation.
Translation – The Language of Ribosomes
The translation is the second major step of protein synthesis. This occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the interaction of mRNA with ribosomes. The cellular machinery is responsible for protein synthesis. Ribosomes consist of two subunits, the large and small subunits, which come together around the mRNA to initiate translation.
Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
The process of translation consists of three main phases: initiation, elongation, and termination. During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the mRNA molecule at the specific start codon, AUG (adenine-uracil-guanine), which signals the beginning of protein synthesis. The initiator tRNA, carrying the amino acid methionine, binds to the start codon. The large ribosomal subunit then joins the complex, forming a functional ribosome.
Elongation is the phase where the ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule in a 5′ to 3′ direction, reading the codons and recruiting specific transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules that carry the corresponding amino acids. The tRNA molecules bind to the ribosome and pair with the codons through complementary base pairing. The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids. This results in the formation of a growing polypeptide chain.
This process will continue until the stop codon is encountered on the mRNA. Stop codons signal the termination of protein synthesis. Release factors bind to the stop codon, causing the release of the completed polypeptide chain from the ribosome.
Post-Translational Modifications – Sculpting Functional Proteins
After synthesis, the newly formed polypeptide chain, or protein, may undergo post-translational modifications. These modifications include folding into a specific three-dimensional structure, cleavage of specific segments, the addition of chemical groups, or joining with other polypeptide chains to form a functional protein complex. Post-translational modifications are crucial for protein stability, activity, and localization within the cell.
Significance of Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis is central to all aspects of life. Proteins serve as structural components, enzymes, receptors, transporters, hormones, and antibodies, among many other vital functions. By understanding the mechanisms of protein synthesis, scientists can unravel the causes of genetic disorders, design therapeutic interventions, develop new drugs, and gain insights into the intricate workings of cells and organisms.
Protein synthesis is a complex and precisely regulated process that enables the conversion of genetic information into functional proteins. Transcription, mRNA processing, translation, and post-translational modifications collectively ensure the production of a diverse array of proteins necessary for cellular functions and organismal development. By delving into the intricacies of protein synthesis, scientists continue to deepen our understanding of life’s fundamental processes and pave the way for advancements in medicine, biotechnology, and our understanding of the natural world.
Topic Questions for Fun!
What is the role of messenger RNA and ribosomes in protein synthesis?
Answer – Messenger RNA (mRNA) is created in a cell’s nucleus and migrates to the cytoplasm, where it connects to ribosomes and directs the formation of amino acid sequences that will form proteins. Ribosomes are locations where mRNA and transfer RNA (tRNA) interact and bond. They are the structures in which peptide bonds connect amino acids delivered by tRNA to produce polypeptide chains.
What is the difference between transcription and translation?
Answer – polypeptides and Transcription is the name given to the formation of RNA molecules from an open DNA chain used as a template. Translation is the creation of polypeptides and therefore of proteins based on information encoded in the mRNA molecule.
In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation occurs in ribosomes. Transcription precedes translation.